Scam centres in Southeast Asia run illegal online schemes that defraud people worldwide, generating billions of dollars of annual revenue. Many facilities are staffed by trafficked foreign nationals, confined in oppressive environments.

People from at least 80 countries and territories have been identified in scam compounds across the region, with recruitment networks using transit hubs in Asia, the Middle East and Africa, according to UNODC.

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Scam operators are increasingly seeking recruits from outside Asia as they expand into new markets, UNODC said.

Recruitment advertisements linked to the industry's communication channels have targeted people with German, Polish, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, French, Swedish, Norwegian and English language skills, it said.

Recent pressure from law enforcement in the region has displaced but not dismantled operations, UNODC said, with gangs relocating from countries like Myanmar and Laos to Timor Leste, Pacific Island states, and parts of Africa.